Istanbul Quiz

A City of Three Empires Across Two Continents

Istanbul is, by almost any measure, one of the most extraordinary cities on Earth. It sits astride the Bosphorus, the narrow strait that separates Europe from Asia, making it the only major city in the world that physically spans two continents. The European side contains the historic old city, the Galata neighborhood, and the modern European districts. The Asian side, often called Anadolu, has its own neighborhoods, history, and atmosphere. Ferries cross between the sides constantly, and the bridges (the Bosphorus Bridge, the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge, and the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge) connect the two halves of the city. To call this geography unique would be to undersell it. Istanbul has been continuously inhabited for over 2,500 years and has served as the capital of three of history's most powerful empires: the Roman Empire (after 330 AD when Constantine moved the capital here), the Byzantine Empire (the eastern continuation of the Roman Empire that survived for over a thousand years after the fall of the western half), and the Ottoman Empire (from 1453 until the empire's dissolution in 1922). Each of these empires left layers of architecture, culture, religion, food, and language that are visible everywhere in the modern city. The Roman walls of Theodosius II still stand in places. The great Byzantine churches, especially Hagia Sophia, dominate the skyline of the old city. Ottoman mosques, palaces, and bazaars define entire neighborhoods. Modern Turkish architecture and infrastructure overlay all of this. Walk through the Sultanahmet neighborhood and you can move from a 6th century church to a 17th century mosque to a 19th century train station to a 21st century cafe within the space of a few minutes. Istanbul was the capital of the Republic of Turkey from 1923 (when Ankara replaced it as the political capital) but remained the country's cultural and economic heart, with a population today of about 15 to 16 million people. It is the most populous city in Europe and one of the largest in the world. The city's mood blends East and West in ways that feel genuinely unique — Mediterranean and Middle Eastern, Mediterranean and Black Sea, Christian and Muslim heritages all in one place. For visitors, the experience of Istanbul tends to be overwhelming on first encounter and addictive on the second.

From Byzantium to Constantinople

The first known settlement on the site was founded by Greek colonists from the city of Megara around 657 BC. They named it Byzantium after their leader Byzas. The location was strategically excellent — controlling the only sea route between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, with two natural harbors (the Golden Horn) protecting against weather, and surrounded by water on three sides. The city grew steadily through the Greek and Roman periods but didn't achieve major importance until the 4th century AD. The pivotal transformation came in 330 AD when the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great chose Byzantium as the new capital of the Roman Empire. Rome itself was no longer suitable as the imperial center for various reasons — it was vulnerable to barbarian invasion, the empire's economic and political center had shifted east, and Constantine wanted a fresh start that could be associated with his own reforms (including the Christianization of the empire). He renamed the city Constantinople in his own honor and embarked on a building program that transformed it into a magnificent imperial capital. Massive walls were built. The Hippodrome was expanded for chariot races. Imperial palaces, churches, forums, and aqueducts went up. By the time Constantine died in 337 AD, Constantinople was already established as a major imperial city. Over the next thousand years, what we call the Byzantine Empire (though contemporaries called it the Roman Empire and themselves Romaioi, Romans) maintained Constantinople as one of the most important cities in the world. While Western Europe collapsed into the Dark Ages after Rome's fall in 476 AD, Constantinople preserved Greek and Roman culture, Christian theology, and administrative sophistication that the West would not match again until the Renaissance. The city was an intellectual and economic center, with universities, libraries, and trade connections reaching from China to England. It survived numerous attacks — Arab sieges in 674 and 717-718, attacks from Bulgarians and Russians, and the catastrophic Fourth Crusade in 1204 when Christian crusaders sacked the city and established a brief Latin Empire. Byzantine power gradually waned through the 13th and 14th centuries as the Ottoman Turks expanded across Anatolia. By the mid-15th century, Constantinople was an isolated city surrounded by Ottoman territory, with a population reduced from over half a million at its peak to perhaps 50,000.

The Ottoman Conquest and the Rise of Istanbul

Sultan Mehmed II began the final siege of Constantinople in April 1453. He was 21 years old and had inherited the Ottoman throne for the second time at age 19; conquering the great Byzantine capital was both a religious and political objective for him. The siege lasted 53 days and involved cutting-edge military technology, especially the massive bombards (cannons) cast by the Hungarian engineer Orban — some of which were so large they had to be transported on specially built carts pulled by teams of oxen and could fire stone balls weighing over half a ton. The Ottoman forces also famously dragged ships overland on greased logs into the Golden Horn, bypassing the chain that the Byzantines had stretched across the harbor. Constantinople fell on May 29, 1453, after fierce fighting. The last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI, died fighting in the streets. Mehmed entered the city, prayed at Hagia Sophia (which he immediately ordered converted to a mosque), and began a transformation of the city into the new Ottoman capital. He brought in artisans, scholars, and merchants from across his empire and from Europe. He repopulated the city, which had become depopulated through plague, war, and emigration. He built new mosques, palaces, schools, and hospitals. He invited Greek, Jewish, Armenian, Italian, and other communities to settle in Istanbul under official protection. The city's population recovered rapidly — by 1500 it was around 200,000, and by 1600 it had reached perhaps 500,000, making it the largest city in Europe. The Ottoman period transformed the city's character. The skyline, dominated by Hagia Sophia for 900 years, was joined by a series of magnificent imperial mosques — the Süleymaniye Mosque (built by Mimar Sinan, the great Ottoman architect, for Suleyman the Magnificent in 1557), the Blue Mosque (1616), the Yeni Cami (the New Mosque, 1665), and many others. Topkapi Palace, started by Mehmed II shortly after the conquest and continuously expanded by his successors, became one of the world's most splendid imperial complexes. The Grand Bazaar, also begun under Mehmed, grew into the commercial heart of the city. Istanbul became a great Ottoman city while preserving deeper layers of its earlier history. Christians, Jews, and Muslims lived in distinct neighborhoods (the millet system) under Ottoman rule, with some communities — particularly Greeks, Armenians, and Sephardic Jews who arrived after expulsion from Spain in 1492 — playing major roles in commerce and the arts.

Hagia Sophia: A Building Like No Other

Hagia Sophia is one of the most extraordinary buildings in human history. Built in just under six years between 532 and 537 AD on the orders of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I, it remained the largest cathedral in the world for nearly a thousand years and stood as an architectural marvel that has influenced building design across cultures for fifteen centuries. The architects, Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus, were as much mathematicians as builders, and the building's central feature — a massive dome 102 feet in diameter rising 180 feet above the ground, supported on four giant pendentives that solve the geometry of placing a circular dome on a square space — was unprecedented in scale and ambition. Walking into Hagia Sophia for the first time has been one of the great human experiences for fifteen centuries. The interior space is enormous and floods with light from windows around the base of the dome, creating an effect that contemporary observers compared to standing in heaven. The building was the heart of Eastern Orthodox Christianity for nearly a thousand years. Important imperial coronations, weddings, and funerals took place here. After the Fourth Crusade of 1204, when Western Christians captured Constantinople, the building was looted and used as a Latin Catholic cathedral for about 60 years before reverting to Orthodox use. After the Ottoman conquest in 1453, Mehmed II ordered the building converted to a mosque. Four minarets were added over time, the Christian mosaics and frescoes were covered (though many were preserved beneath plaster, allowing later restoration), and Islamic features including the mihrab and minbar were added. The building functioned as the principal mosque of the Ottoman Empire for nearly five hundred years. In 1934, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of the Turkish Republic, secularized the building and converted it to a museum, presenting it as a monument shared by all of humanity rather than belonging to any one religion. The Christian mosaics that had been covered over were carefully restored. For decades, Hagia Sophia operated as a museum and became one of the most visited tourist sites in the world, a site of universal interest reflecting Istanbul's complicated heritage. In July 2020, the Turkish government converted Hagia Sophia back into a mosque, drawing both domestic celebration and international concern. The building is now used for Islamic prayer five times a day, with mosaics covered during prayer times but viewable at other times. The monument remains open to all visitors free of charge. Whatever its current status, Hagia Sophia continues to be one of the most evocative buildings on Earth.

The Grand Bazaar and the Spice Bazaar

Istanbul's covered markets are among the most famous shopping experiences in the world. The Grand Bazaar (Kapalı Çarşı in Turkish, meaning Covered Market) is one of the largest and oldest covered markets anywhere. Construction began shortly after the Ottoman conquest in 1455 and the bazaar has been continuously expanded and modified over the past 570 years. Today it covers about 333,000 square feet across 60 streets and contains roughly 4,000 shops. Daily visitors range from 250,000 to 400,000, making it one of the most-visited tourist attractions in the world. The Grand Bazaar is organized into specialized districts. There are streets for jewelry (gold, silver, precious stones), carpets and kilims, leather goods, ceramics, antiques, tea sets, brass and copperware, scarves and clothing. The bazaar is a working commercial space rather than primarily a tourist attraction — many of the shops sell wholesale to retailers throughout Turkey and the world. The atmosphere combines the sense of a museum, a market, and an architectural monument. The roof of the bazaar is a series of vaulted brick arches and small domes, with original Ottoman details still visible. Bargaining is expected at most stalls, and prices typically start at three to five times what the seller will eventually accept. Visitors who don't want to bargain can shop at the few fixed-price stores within the bazaar. The Spice Bazaar (Mısır Çarşısı, the Egyptian Bazaar, named for the Egyptian taxes that originally funded its construction in 1664) is smaller and more aromatic. As the name suggests, it's primarily a market for spices, dried fruits, nuts, Turkish delight (lokum), tea, coffee, honey, and various traditional foods. The Egyptian Bazaar is set within the New Mosque (Yeni Cami) complex near the Eminönü waterfront, and combining a visit to both is a natural Istanbul activity. Beyond these famous markets, smaller bazaars and neighborhood markets dot the city. The Arasta Bazaar near the Blue Mosque, the Sahaflar (Booksellers) Bazaar near Beyazit Square, the Sunday market in Bomonti, and various local food markets like the Kadiköy market on the Asian side all offer different shopping atmospheres. Each market has its own personality and rhythm.

Topkapi Palace and the World of the Sultans

Topkapi Palace was the official residence and administrative center of Ottoman sultans for nearly 400 years, from shortly after the conquest in 1465 until 1856 when Sultan Abdülmecid moved his court to the new Dolmabahçe Palace on the Bosphorus. The palace complex sprawls across a promontory overlooking the meeting of the Bosphorus, the Golden Horn, and the Sea of Marmara, with views in three directions toward both Europe and Asia. Topkapi is not a single building but a series of courtyards, pavilions, and chambers built over centuries. The First Courtyard, accessible without admission, contains the Hagia Irene (a 4th-century Byzantine church that has survived in its essentially original form), gardens, and the entrance to the palace proper. The Second Courtyard contains the imperial kitchens (which once fed up to 4,000 people daily and now display an exceptional collection of Chinese porcelain — the Ottomans were great collectors of Chinese ceramics, and the Topkapi collection is one of the world's best outside China itself), the Imperial Council chamber, and the palace stables. The Third Courtyard contains the audience chamber, the imperial library, the Treasury (housing the Topkapi Dagger with its emerald handle, the Spoonmaker's Diamond at 86 carats, and other extraordinary jewels), and the Privy Chamber where some of the holiest relics of Islam are kept (including a hair from the beard of the Prophet Muhammad and a sword attributed to him). The Fourth Courtyard contains gardens, viewing pavilions, and the Circumcision Room. The Harem, accessible by a separate ticket, was the private living quarters of the sultan and his family, and contains some of the most beautifully decorated chambers in the palace. The harem complex housed the sultan's mother (the Valide Sultan, often the most powerful woman in the empire), his consorts, his children, and a substantial staff including eunuchs who managed the harem. The chambers include the Imperial Hall (the largest room in the harem), the bedrooms of the sultan and his consorts, schools for princes, bathing complexes, and gardens. The harem was a center of imperial intrigue throughout Ottoman history; many succession battles, political plots, and personal dramas played out within its walls. Topkapi Palace today is one of the most-visited museums in Turkey. Visitors can see imperial costumes, weapons, manuscripts, religious relics, and the daily luxuries of one of the most powerful courts in human history.

The Bosphorus, the Princes' Islands, and the Asian Side

The Bosphorus is more than just a strait — it's the soul of Istanbul, the constant presence that defines the city's geography and atmosphere. Walking, driving, or boating along the Bosphorus is one of the great Istanbul experiences. The waterway is about 19 miles long, narrow at points, with steep wooded hills on both shores and a continuous parade of historic palaces, fortresses, mansions, and small fishing villages along its banks. A Bosphorus cruise — readily available from Eminönü or other piers — is essential for visitors who want to understand the city's geography. Highlights along the European shore include the Dolmabahçe Palace (the Ottoman successor to Topkapi, built in mid-19th century European style with extraordinary opulence), Çırağan Palace (now a luxury hotel), the Bosphorus Bridge, Rumeli Hisarı (a fortress built by Mehmed II in 1452 specifically to control the strait before his conquest of Constantinople), Sariyer (a fishing village now a wealthy suburb), and Kilyos at the Black Sea entrance. The Asian shore has its own attractions: Anadolu Hisarı (the older fortress, opposite Rumeli Hisarı), the wooden waterfront mansions called yalı (some dating from the 18th and 19th centuries and now extraordinarily expensive), Beylerbeyi Palace, Çengelköy (famous for its small cucumbers), Kuzguncuk (a colorful neighborhood that has resisted gentrification), and the historic Kadiköy district with its excellent restaurants and Tuesday market. The Asian side of Istanbul, often called Anadolu, has its own distinct character. While the European side contains most of the famous tourist sites, the Asian side has the more intimate neighborhoods, working-class districts, and authentic local life. Üsküdar, just across the water from the historic peninsula, contains beautiful Ottoman mosques (the Mihrimah Sultan Mosque and the Şemsi Pasha Mosque) and is the gateway to the Asian side via ferry. Kadiköy is hipper and more cosmopolitan, with bookshops, vintage stores, restaurants, and the Moda waterfront district. The Princes' Islands (Adalar) lie about an hour by ferry from the city center, in the Sea of Marmara. Cars are forbidden on most of the islands, with horse-drawn carriages and bicycles serving as the main transportation. The four largest islands (Büyükada, Heybeliada, Burgazada, and Kınalıada) make excellent day trips, with beaches, restaurants, beautiful old wooden houses, and a slower pace that contrasts with the intensity of the main city.

Istanbul Today: Neighborhoods, Food, and the Modern City

Modern Istanbul is one of the largest and most dynamic cities in the world. It dwarfs every other Turkish city economically and culturally, with a population that has grown rapidly over recent decades through internal migration from the Anatolian countryside. The city is enormous, sprawling, and varied. Different neighborhoods feel like different cities. Beyoğlu, on the European side north of the Golden Horn, is the modern cultural heart of Istanbul. The pedestrian Istiklal Avenue stretches from Taksim Square (the modern center, where major celebrations and protests take place) down to the historic Galata Tower. Restaurants, cafés, bookshops, art galleries, and music venues line the avenue. The Galata neighborhood at its lower end was historically the Genoese trading district and retains a Mediterranean European character. Karaköy below has been gentrified in recent years and contains some of the best modern restaurants in the city. Sultanahmet contains the famous historic monuments — Hagia Sophia, the Blue Mosque, Topkapi Palace, the Hippodrome, the Basilica Cistern. Tourists tend to concentrate here, but the neighborhood retains charm beyond the major sites. Eminönü is the working-class commercial waterfront, dominated by the Galata Bridge, the Spice Bazaar, and the Yeni Cami. Süleymaniye, slightly inland, is the elegant district around Sinan's masterpiece mosque. Fatih, the broader district that contains much of the historic peninsula, has the most conservative atmosphere in central Istanbul. Beşiktaş on the Bosphorus is wealthy and stylish; Ortaköy nearby is a charming Bosphorus village; Bebek is one of the most expensive neighborhoods in Turkey. Istanbul food is one of the world's great cuisines and has been getting steadily more famous internationally. Traditional Turkish cooking emphasizes meat (lamb especially), eggplant in many forms, yogurt, fresh bread, and an extraordinary range of meze (small dishes). Kebabs in many varieties, pilavs, soups, stuffed vegetables, the famous Turkish breakfast spread, baklava and other syrupy desserts, and Turkish coffee or tea — eating well in Istanbul is genuinely easy. Higher-end restaurants have explored modernist Turkish cuisine; street food remains some of the best in the world. The fish sandwich (balık ekmek) sold from boats at Eminönü, börek (savory pastries), kumpir (loaded baked potatoes), and freshly squeezed pomegranate juice are all Istanbul classics. The current city is the heir to all the layers of history that came before — Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Ottoman, Republican Turkish, modern global. It manages to be modern and ancient, secular and devout, European and Asian, all at the same time. Few cities offer this much within a single visit, and few visitors leave without wanting to return.